Greenhouse gases: causes, effects and measurement systems for climate action

Greenhouse gasesGreenhouse gases (GHGs) are natural and anthropogenic gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, regulating the planet’s temperature. However, when ...
Read more (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO₂)Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas that occurs naturally in the atmosphere and plays a crucial role in the life processes of the planet. This gas, also known as...
Read more, methane (CH₄)Methane, known chemically as CH₄, is a gas that is harmful to the atmosphere and to living beings because it has a high heat-trapping capacity. For this ...
Read more, and nitrous oxide (N₂O) trap heat in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect and driving global warming. Monitoring these gases with high precision is essential for effective climate action, compliance with international targets, and the protection of ecosystems and human health.

The summer of 2024 is set to end as the warmest summer on record since the collection of weather data began 175 years ago. This record that is no longer something out of the ordinary; for four decades the temperature of the planet has been on an unstoppable upward trend, having increased by an average of 1.45°C.

Although 2023 stood out as the hottest, it is likely that at the end of this year the temperatures experienced throughout the planet will exceed those recorded last year. The most alarming thing is that we are not facing a scenario of weather anomalies occurring in specific or seasonal episodes, but which are increasingly constant and recurrent changes. This is due to the energy trapped in the atmosphere, which in turn is due to the high levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) present.

“2023 has clearly shown us that climate change is already here. Unprecedented temperatures scorch the earth and warm the oceans, and episodes of extreme weather events wreak havoc across the globe. Although we know that this is only the beginning, the global response is clearly insufficient.” Antonio Gutérres, Secretary-General of the UN.

Forest fires, cyclones, heat waves, torrential rains, rising sea levels and long droughts are increasingly frequent phenomena that develop with unusual speed and fury across the planet. This threat causes greatest havoc among humans, as well as on ecosystems and species in their habitats.

In order to confront this global environmental threat, it is essential to monitor the state of the climate. By accurately monitoring the main greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), we still have time to mitigate climate change.

What are greenhouse gases and how do they affect the planet?

Definition and natural role of GHGs

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are naturally occurring gases in the Earth’s atmosphere that have the ability to trap heat and regulate the planet’s temperature. They act as a thermal blanket, allowing solar radiation to reach the surface while preventing part of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth from escaping back into space.

The main natural greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), ozone (O₃), and water vapour (H₂O). Without their moderating effect, the average global temperature would be about –18 °C, making life as we know it impossible.

Therefore, the greenhouse effect is not inherently negative, it is a vital natural process that keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain ecosystems, agriculture, and biodiversity.

This phenomenon occurs when solar radiation (visible and ultraviolet light) passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth’s surface. The heated surface then emits energy back toward space as infrared radiation.

Some of this outgoing radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by greenhouse gases, which causes heat to be trapped within the lower layers of the atmosphere. This balance between incoming and outgoing energy is what keeps the planet’s climate stable.

However, when the concentration of GHGs increases due to human activities, this natural balance is disrupted, causing more energy to remain in the atmosphere and leading to global temperature rise.

Human influence: anthropogenic GHGs and radiative forcing

Since the Industrial Revolution, human activity has drastically increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels, industrial processes, intensive agriculture, and deforestation have all contributed to the accumulation of these gases beyond natural levels.

This phenomenon intensifies the so-called radiative forcing, the measure of how much additional energy is trapped in the climate system because of increased GHGs. Positive radiative forcing means more energy is entering than leaving the atmosphere, resulting in a warming effect.

• CO₂ accounts for roughly 75% of total GHG emissions and remains in the atmosphere for centuries.

• CH₄ has a shorter lifespan (≈12 years) but a global warming potential more than 25 times greater than CO₂.

• N₂O persists for over a century and contributes both to global warming and ozone layer depletion.

Together, these gases have raised the Earth’s average temperature by approximately 1.45 °C above pre-industrial levels, triggering unprecedented environmental and societal impacts.

Connection with global warming and climate change

The increase in greenhouse gas concentrations is the principal driver of global warming, the long-term rise in Earth’s average temperature. This warming disrupts natural climate patterns, leading to more frequent extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, and intense storms.

Rising global temperatures also accelerate the melting of glaciers and polar ice, contributing to sea level rise and threatening coastal ecosystems and communities.

Moreover, the accumulation of GHGs affects ocean chemistry, increasing acidification and altering marine biodiversity. The combined effects of these processes define what we now know as climate change, a complex, interconnected crisis that demands accurate monitoring and decisive global action.

Understanding how greenhouse gases work and how human activities alter their natural balance is essential to designing effective mitigation strategies and air-quality monitoring systems capable of protecting both people and the planet.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that enables the Earth to retain heat from visible and ultraviolet light, including solar radiation. Part of this radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, which causes it to be heated to a level suitable for the development of life. Without such solar energy, the average temperature of the planet would not rise from -18°C.

However, part of this radiation is returned to the atmosphere in the form of infra-red radiation in order to balance the heat. Then, some polluting gases caused by human activities and remaining in the atmosphere absorb part of this infra-red radiation, which is then returned to the Earth’s surface, causing considerable warming. Heat is trapped by the action of greenhouse gases, drastically altering the temperature appropriate for the development of life in the biosphere and causing global warming.

Main sources and causes of greenhouse gas emissions

Human activity is the main driver behind the rising concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. These gases are released during energy production, industrial processes, agriculture, waste management and land use changes. Together, they amplify the greenhouse effect and accelerate global warming.

The following sectors represent the primary sources of anthropogenic emissions:

Burning of fossil fuels (industry, transport and energy)

The combustion of coal, oil and natural gas is the largest single contributor to global GHG emissions. When fossil fuels are burned to generate energy or power machinery, they release large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂), the principal greenhouse gas responsible for long-term climate change.

Industry and power generation

Industrial facilities and thermal power plants account for the majority of CO₂ emissions. Electricity and heat generation alone are responsible for nearly 40% of global energy-related emissions. The burning of fossil fuels in boilers, turbines and furnaces releases CO₂ and other pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x), which further degrade air qualityAir quality refers to the state of the air we breathe and its composition in terms of pollutants present in the atmosphere. It is considered good when poll...
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Transportation

Cars, trucks, ships and aircraft that rely on gasoline or diesel engines emit both CO₂ and methane (CH₄). The transportation sector contributes roughly one-fifth of global GHG emissions, driven by the continued reliance on internal combustion engines and the slow adoption of low-carbon mobility alternatives.

Agriculture and livestock (methane and nitrous oxide)

Agricultural and livestock practices generate significant quantities of methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), two gases with a much higher warming potential than CO₂.

• Methane is emitted during enteric fermentation in ruminant animals (cows, sheep, goats) and during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in rice paddies, manure storage, and agricultural waste.
• Nitrous oxide comes mainly from nitrogen-based fertilisers, soil management practices, and manure application in intensive farming systems.

Both gases are extremely potent: methane has a global warming potential 28 times greater than CO₂, while nitrous oxide’s is nearly 300 times greater over a 100-year period.

Deforestation and land use change (carbon sinks loss)

Forests and vegetation act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO₂ through photosynthesis and storing it in biomass and soils. However, deforestation, forest degradation and land conversion release that stored carbon back into the atmosphere.

Every year, the destruction of forests for agriculture, mining and urban expansion contributes to around 10–12% of global GHG emissions.
The loss of these carbon sinks also reduces the planet’s natural ability to offset emissions from other sectors, creating a feedback loop that worsens climate imbalance.

Waste and landfills (methane generation)

The decomposition of organic waste in landfills under oxygen-poor (anaerobic) conditions produces methane, one of the most potent greenhouse gases.
In addition, waste incineration and petroleum-based residues emit CO₂ and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), contributing further to local air pollution and climate change.

Improper waste management not only emits GHGs but also generates harmful by-products that can affect air, soil and water quality. Expanding waste-to-energy technologies, recycling and composting are effective strategies to reduce methane emissions from this sector.

Industrial processes and chemicals (cement, steel, fluorinated gases)

Cement, steel and chemical production

The industrial sector is responsible for roughly 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Processes such as cement manufacturing, steel production and chemical synthesis release CO₂ and nitrous oxide (N₂O) as a result of fuel combustion and chemical reactions. For example, cement production alone contributes nearly 8% of global CO₂ emissions, mainly from the calcination of limestone.

Fluorinated gases and synthetic compounds

Industrial applications and chemical processes also emit fluorinated gases (F-gases), such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆). Although these gases are released in smaller quantities compared to CO₂ or CH₄, they have an extremely high global warming potential (ranging from hundreds to tens of thousands of times more than CO₂). They are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, aerosols and insulating foams, and must be strictly managed under international regulations like the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol.

Understanding the full scope of greenhouse gas emissions

The scopes of GHG emissions classify the origin of these gases:

• Scope 1: Direct emissions from owned or controlled sources (e.g. fuel combustion, industrial processes).
• Scope 2: Indirect emissions from purchased energy (electricity, heat, steam).
• Scope 3: All other indirect emissions in the value chain, including product use, waste disposal, and transport.

Understanding these categories helps industries, governments and organisations to quantify, monitor and reduce their overall carbon footprintIn a world increasingly affected by climate change, understanding how our everyday actions contribute to its worsening has become essential. The carbon foo...
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Why measuring greenhouse gases is essential

Data-driven climate action

The measurement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is the cornerstone of effective climate governance. Monitoring the concentration and flow of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) provides the scientific foundation needed to design and evaluate climate policies. Accurate, traceable data allow governments and industries to quantify their emissions, assess mitigation efforts, and measure progress toward net-zero targets.

This principle is endorsed by more than 100 international experts from 48 countries who, under the coordination of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), highlighted the need for transparent and standardised measurement frameworks during meetings at the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission in Ispra (Italy). Such frameworks are essential to ensure that climate actions are both scientifically grounded and consistent across nations.

In line with this, the Paris Agreement, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have established global monitoring initiatives to support data-driven climate action. These frameworks aim to harmonise measurement methods, improve data comparability and strengthen the scientific basis for international climate commitments.

“Reliable and harmonised greenhouse gas monitoring enables transparency, supports verification of commitments, and enhances the global response to climate change.” IPCC, 2023

Scientific and policy value of reliable GHG data

Reliable, verified GHG data serve as the bridge between scientific knowledge and political decision-making. They enable researchers to develop accurate climate models, assess human influence on the atmosphere, and predict long-term environmental trends. At the same time, policymakers use these data to evaluate national progress toward emission-reduction goals and to design mitigation strategies consistent with international standards.

The harmonisation of greenhouse gas inventories, as promoted by the IPCC, ensures that countries use comparable methodologies to estimate emissions by sector and activity. This consistency enhances trust in international reporting and strengthens accountability under the UNFCCC. It also provides the foundation for open data policies that foster transparency and collective climate planning.

Access to open environmental data has already led to measurable benefits. In Europe, for instance, the availability of harmonised GHG datasets has helped achieve significant energy savings and cost reductions in both the public and private sectors. The Global Greenhouse Gas Watch (G3W) initiative launched by the WMO represents a major step forward in this direction, integrating ground-based and satellite observations into a global, real-time monitoring network.

“Revolutionary scientific and technological advances, such as high-resolution climate modelling, artificial intelligence, and early warning systems, can drive the transformation needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.” Petteri Taalas, Secretary-General, WMO

The challenge of uncertainty in national inventories

Despite the progress made, uncertainty in national greenhouse gas inventories remains one of the greatest challenges for climate governance. According to researcher Giacomo Grassi, “there are striking differences between estimates of anthropogenic CO₂ flows and the national inventories used to assess compliance with climate targets.” These discrepancies arise from differences in methodologies, incomplete datasets, and variations in how land-use and emission factors are defined.

To reduce these inconsistencies, the scientific community is working to refine emission models and improve calibration between observational data and national reports. Enhanced use of remote sensing, IoT-based monitoring systems, and high-frequency sampling networks can help verify emission sources and reduce data gaps in under-monitored regions.

Reducing uncertainty is not merely a technical challenge, it is essential for ensuring policy credibility and public trust. Transparent, well-documented data allow for fair comparisons between countries, accurate verification of progress, and better design of mitigation strategies based on real emissions rather than estimates. Ultimately, scientific precision in GHG monitoring transforms data into action, laying the foundation for effective, accountable, and future-oriented climate policies.

Measuring greenhouse gases: technologies and methods

The measurement and analysis of greenhouse gases (GHGs) rely on a combination of direct and indirect methods designed to quantify their concentration, sources, and behaviour in the atmosphere. Modern monitoring technologies provide real-time, high-precision data that enable scientists and policymakers to assess emission trends, evaluate climate policies, and design more effective mitigation strategies.

Atmospheric monitoring stations

Atmospheric monitoring stations are fundamental for tracking the concentration of greenhouse gases at local, regional, and global scales. These stations operate continuously, collecting real-time data that reflect variations in CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, and other trace gases. Strategically located in urban, rural, and remote environments, they provide a comprehensive picture of emission sources and natural sinks.

Typical stations are equipped with advanced analytical instruments such as non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) spectrometers, tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) systems, and gas chromatographs. These devices ensure the detection of gases with sub-ppm (parts per million) precision, offering essential data for climate models and international inventories.

Satellite observations

The use of satellite-based remote sensing has transformed the monitoring of greenhouse gases on a global scale. Satellites operated by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) Global Greenhouse Gas Watch (G3W) initiative allow for the continuous detection of GHGs across vast and often inaccessible regions.

These satellites carry onboard spectrometers that measure sunlight reflected and absorbed by the Earth’s surface, enabling the quantification of gases such as CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O. The integration of LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology further enhances precision by emitting laser pulses into the atmosphere and measuring the reflected light, allowing for accurate vertical profiles of gas concentrations.

Greenhouse gas inventories

National greenhouse gas inventories compile data on GHG emissions and removals over a specific period, typically one year. These inventories follow standardised methodologies defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which ensure consistency and comparability among countries.

Inventories are essential for verifying compliance with international agreements such as the Paris Agreement. They allow nations to evaluate the effectiveness of their climate policies and adapt them to achieve emission reduction targets. Computational models complement these efforts by estimating emissions based on activity data, energy statistics, and emission factors.

This process demands meticulous data calibration and harmonisation to ensure that GHG estimates are both transparent and scientifically robust, supporting global climate reporting and accountability frameworks.

Sensor-based monitoring and IoT solutions

In addition to large-scale systems, sensor-based monitoring networks play an increasingly important role in detecting local and fugitive emissions, particularly in industrial environments. These networks use electrochemical and optical sensors capable of identifying small leaks and concentration peaks in real time.

For example, Kunak AIR Pro stations integrate high-precision sensors that continuously monitor gases such as methane (CH₄), carbon monoxide (CO)The carbon monoxide (CO) is an invisible gas (colorless and odorless) that, at the same time, is a silent killer because in just a few minutes it exhibits ...
Read more, and nitrogen oxides (NO_x), providing granular environmental data at the perimeter of industrial sites, waste treatment facilities, or urban areas. Combined with Kunak Cloud, this data can be analysed remotely, enabling operators to detect anomalies, prevent emissions, and optimise industrial processes.

These IoT-based systems not only enhance workplace safety but also contribute to emission reduction strategies by facilitating early detection, data-driven decision-making, and compliance with environmental regulations.

Other scientific methods

Several complementary techniques are used to expand our understanding of GHG dynamics and their exchange between the surface and the atmosphere.

One of the most widely applied is the Eddy Covariance Technique, which measures the vertical fluxes of gases, water vapour, and energy between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. This method is invaluable for identifying natural carbon sinks and sources in forests, wetlands, and agricultural lands.

Another advanced approach involves isotopic analysis, which uses isotopes such as nitrogen-15 (N-15) and carbon-13 (C-13) to trace the origin, transformation, and transport of greenhouse gases. These methods provide crucial insights for developing sustainable agricultural practices and improving the accuracy of global emission models.

Together, these complementary technologies deliver a comprehensive and precise picture of greenhouse gas concentrations and their evolution over time, laying the foundation for more informed and effective climate action strategies.

Global frameworks and initiatives for GHG monitoring

The Paris Agreement and carbon budgets

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), established the foundation for coordinated global efforts to limit the rise in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to restrict it to 1.5 °C. Each participating country commits to defining and updating its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which include emission reduction targets and adaptation strategies.

To align with these goals, the concept of global carbon budgets has become a critical tool for planning climate action. A carbon budget represents the maximum amount of CO₂ that can be emitted while still having a reasonable chance of limiting global warming to the desired threshold. Scientific assessments suggest that to meet the 1.5 °C target, global CO₂ emissions must fall by around 45% by 2030 compared to 2010 levels and reach net zero by 2050.

Reaching these mitigation targets requires robust monitoring systems capable of tracking progress in real time. Reliable and transparent GHG data provide the evidence base needed to design policies, measure compliance, and evaluate whether national actions are consistent with global net-zero commitments.

IPCC and WMO programmes

Two key institutions coordinate international efforts to monitor and assess greenhouse gases: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

The IPCC develops the Assessment Reports that synthesise scientific knowledge on climate change and provide methodologies for national greenhouse gas inventories. These guidelines ensure consistency and comparability across countries, forming the basis for transparent reporting under the Paris Agreement.

Meanwhile, the WMO plays a crucial role in global atmospheric observation. In 2023, it launched the Global Greenhouse Gas Watch (G3W) initiative, which integrates satellite observations, ground-based measurements, and atmospheric models to create a unified, near-real-time monitoring system of global GHG concentrations. This programme supports the scientific and policy communities by providing independent verification of emission data and strengthening the global capacity for climate monitoring.

International datasets and carbon inventories

Global monitoring initiatives rely on open and harmonised datasets that compile information on fossil fuel use, industrial production, land-use change, and other emission sources. Among the most recognised resources is the Global Carbon Budget 2023, which quantifies CO₂ emissions from human activities and natural sinks.

According to the report, global fossil CO₂ emissions reached 37.4 billion tonnes in 2023, representing a slight increase compared to the previous year. Although emissions have stabilised or declined in some regions, such as Europe and the United States, they continue to rise in emerging economies. The report also highlights the growing contribution of deforestation and land degradation to total emissions, underscoring the urgency of implementing sustainable land management practices.

By integrating data from multiple sources, inventories, satellite systems, and sensor networks, international datasets provide the foundation for scientific modelling, policy development, and the verification of global climate commitments.

Key greenhouse gases and their characteristics

Carbon dioxide (CO₂), main long-lived GHG from combustion

Carbon dioxide is the most abundant and persistent anthropogenic greenhouse gas. It is primarily released from the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), cement production, and deforestation. Although CO₂ is less potent per molecule than other gases, its long atmospheric lifetime, more than 100 years, makes it the largest contributor to global warming.

Methane (CH₄), powerful short-lived climate pollutant from agriculture and waste

Methane is a short-lived but extremely potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 28 times greater than CO₂ over a 100-year period. Its main sources include livestock farming (enteric fermentation), landfills, wastewater treatment, and the extraction and transport of fossil fuels. Despite its relatively short atmospheric lifetime of about 12 years, methane’s intense radiative effect makes it a critical target for rapid mitigation strategies.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O), emitted from fertilisers and industry

Nitrous oxide is produced through soil microbial processes enhanced by the use of synthetic fertilisers in agriculture, as well as from industrial and combustion activities. It has a global warming potential approximately 300 times that of CO₂ and remains in the atmosphere for over a century. Additionally, N₂O contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer, making its control a dual environmental priority.

Fluorinated gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF₆), industrial and refrigerant uses

Fluorinated gases are synthetic compounds widely used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and insulating agents in industrial processes. Although they represent a small fraction of total emissions, they have very high global warming potentials (GWPs), in some cases more than 10,000 times greater than CO₂. Regulations such as the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol seek to phase down their production and consumption worldwide.

Technological advances for climate action

Technological innovation plays an essential role in achieving global climate goals. Emerging tools based on artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT) architectures, and real-time data analytics are transforming how emissions are detected, quantified, and reported.

Through the integration of monitoring networks and cloud-based platforms, large volumes of environmental data can be aggregated, processed, and visualised in real time. This approach improves traceability, supports compliance with international standards, and facilitates more efficient decision-making for governments and industries.

High-precision solutions such as the Kunak AIR Pro and the Kunak Cloud platform exemplify how connected sensor networks can provide continuous air quality and gas monitoring in complex environments. These systems enable early leak detection, support emission reduction initiatives, and provide verifiable data aligned with ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) strategies.

By combining automation, data science, and connectivity, these technologies lay the foundation for a smart, data-driven approach to climate action, where transparency and precision are key to achieving sustainable and measurable results.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about GHGs

What are the main greenhouse gases?

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) responsible for trapping heat in the Earth’s atmosphere are: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), ozone (O₃), and water vapour (H₂O). Additionally, synthetic gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) also contribute significantly, despite being emitted in smaller quantities. Each of these gases has a different global warming potential (GWP) and atmospheric lifetime, determining its relative impact on climate change.

How do greenhouse gases cause global warming?

Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming by trapping heat within the atmosphere through the greenhouse effect. When solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface, part of it is absorbed and re-emitted as infrared radiation. GHGs absorb and re-radiate this energy, preventing it from escaping into space. The greater the concentration of these gases, the more heat becomes trapped, leading to a gradual increase in the planet’s average temperature. This additional warming disrupts weather patterns, intensifies extreme events, and affects ecosystems globally.

What is the difference between CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O?

Although carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) all trap heat, they differ in origin, persistence, and potency:

• CO₂: Emitted mainly by burning fossil fuels, cement production, and deforestation. It accounts for roughly 75% of global GHG emissions and can remain in the atmosphere for more than a century.
• CH₄: Produced by agriculture (especially livestock), landfills, and natural gas extraction. It is about 28 times more potent than CO₂ over a 100-year period but remains in the atmosphere for only about 12 years.
• N₂O: Originates primarily from nitrogen-based fertilisers and industrial activities. It has a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than CO₂ and a lifetime exceeding 100 years.

Together, these gases represent the core focus of global climate mitigation efforts due to their significant and long-lasting effects on the Earth’s radiative balance.

How are greenhouse gases measured?

Greenhouse gases are measured using a range of technologies and methodologies designed to detect and quantify their concentrations in the atmosphere:

• Atmospheric monitoring stations collect continuous, real-time data using instruments such as non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) analysers, gas chromatographs, and laser absorption spectrometers.
• Satellite observations (by NASA, ESA, and WMO) measure sunlight absorption and reflection to map global GHG distribution, especially CO₂ and CH₄.
• National greenhouse gas inventories compiled by governments follow IPCC methodologies to estimate emissions by sector and activity.
• Sensor-based and IoT systems, like Kunak AIR Pro and Kunak Cloud, detect local and industrial emissions in real time, providing high-resolution environmental data for immediate response and compliance verification.

These complementary approaches ensure accurate monitoring across scales, from global atmospheric trends to local emission sources.

What solutions exist to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions requires a combination of technological innovation, policy enforcement, and behavioural change. Key strategies include:

• Transitioning to renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power to replace fossil fuel dependence.
• Improving energy efficiency in industry, transport, and buildings to reduce fuel consumption.
• Developing low-emission agriculture through optimised fertiliser use, improved manure management, and sustainable livestock practices.
• Protecting and restoring forests to enhance natural carbon sinks that absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere.
• Implementing carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS) technologies to reduce industrial CO₂ emissions.
• Deploying real-time monitoring technologies such as Kunak’s sensor networks to track emissions, identify leaks, and verify compliance with environmental standards.

By combining data-driven environmental monitoring with clean technologies and strong policy frameworks, governments and industries can accelerate the transition toward net-zero emissions and a more sustainable global economy.

Conclusion: From measurement to action

Reliable and transparent greenhouse gas (GHG) monitoring is the cornerstone of effective climate policy and industrial sustainability. By combining scientific precision, open-access environmental data, and innovative technologies such as IoT sensor networks, governments, industries, and research institutions can move from isolated initiatives to coordinated and data-driven climate action. Continuous monitoring enables early detection of emissions, supports evidence-based decision-making, and reinforces global commitments toward net-zero emissions and a healthier planet.

References

• Poulter, B., Canadell, J., Hayes, D. and Thompson, R. Balancing Greenhouse Gas Budgets. Elsevier. Eds. May 2022.
• Janssens-Maenhout, G., al,2020. Towards an Operational Anthropogenic CO2 Emissions Monitoring and Verification Support Capacity. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 101, E1439–E1451, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-19-0017.1
• Grassi, G., al, 2023.  Harmonising the land-use flux estimates of global models and national inventories for 2000—2020. Earth System Science Data, 15, 3 (1093—1114). https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/1093/2023/
• World Meteorological Organization, al. United in Science 2023 Inform. https://library.wmo.int/records/item/68235-united-in-science-2023
• Friedlingstein, P. al.Global Carbon Budget 2023. Earth System Science Data. 15, 12 (5301—5369). https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/5301/2023